The South African situation, language and identity, and being a world citizen

Fresh from my study abroad to South Africa, I am faced with a question: How can the South African situation broaden students’ notions of language and identity as they become “world citizens”? This question is multi-faceted; in fact, it has three parts which must be explored before answering the entire question. One: what is “the South African situation”? Two: how are language and identity linked in South Africa? And three: what does being a “world citizen” mean?

What is “the South African situation”?

The term ‘South African situation’ is incredibly vague and could refer to any number of things. For the purposes of our study abroad, the situation at hand is their transition away from apartheid toward what Nelson Mandela calls a “new South Africa”. This is a South Africa in which Afrikaners and Zulus and Xhosas and blacks and whites live together with peace and cohesion: a South Africa with a “national identity”. The problem with this arises only after thoroughly observing South Africa’s people and how they coexist. South Africa still has 11 official languages. The different speakers of these tongues cannot possibly come together as a unified group of South Africans when they don’t even speak each other’s language. I asked a student at the University of Johannesburg what the national identity meant to her, and she said South Africans are “unified in their differences”. The national identity is a conglomeration of many diverse groups, coming together while celebrating their unique culture. Given all of this, the South African situation is complex and confusing. The situation is that South African citizens are attempting to move forward from the horrors of apartheid and come together while trying to honor the many cultural backgrounds they come from. This article from CapeTownMagazine.com about “Freedom Day” points out that apartheid may be over but the equal rights war is not: http://www.capetownmagazine.com/whats-the-deal-with/Freedom-Day/125_22_17065

How are language and identity linked in South Africa?

Language and identity are interchangeable. Without language, many aspects of identity are lost. In South Africa especially, with eleven official languages, language is an extremely important index of who someone is. Language is not as important to Americans because there is no official language; it is something of a non-issue.
The concept of unilingualization--“the practice, in South Africa, of using English as the sole medium of communication in virtually all the organs of state” (Kamwangamalu)--seems to threaten the link between language and identity in terms of South Africa’s diversity. However, this unilingualization can identify someone as a prominent businessman or politician.

What does being a “world citizen” mean?

A world citizen is someone who has a drive to learn about new cultures and, more importantly, understand them. A world citizen is tolerant and open to exposure of the good and bad aspects of a culture.

~Kelly Dunnigan

How can the South African situation broaden students' notions of language and identity as they become "world citizens"?

Having explored the three parts of the main question, I can now put the parts together to explain how the South African situation can broaden students’ notions of language and identity as they become “world citizens”.

South Africa is the perfect place for students to become world citizens. To learn about the country’s history, there must be a certain level of tolerance and acceptance on the student’s part because of it’s violent and oppressive past. Also, students probably will not be able to leave South Africa without a new idea of what language and identity are.

To most American high school students, ‘language’ simply means the class they take to learn spanish or french. ‘Identity’ means how their classmates see them as they walk down the halls. Language and identity are rarely, if ever, thought of in the same context. Going to South Africa in 2011, when they are still trying to move away from apartheid and come together as one nation, is a prime learning opportunity and forces students to realize language and identityare related, and their connections are vast and meaningful.

South African people are struggling with how to identify themselves in the new political climate of the country. While learning English is commonplace (not to mention smart), how does someone with a rich cultural background maintain that culture, which encompasses their mother tongue, and continue to move forward in the new South Africa? American students visiting South Africa can easily see that language and identity are not what they originally thought.

~Kelly Dunnigan

Why (and how) are 11 languages recognized as official languages?

Every time I met someone new while in South Africa the same worried question crossed my mind; how do I say hello? In many countries, while it may not be your native tongue, saying hello is as easy as memorizing a couple words. South Africa on the other hand is a different story. Although we were studying Xhosa while abroad, there is only so much preparation that can go into teaching you that there are eleven official languages, eleven ways of greeting people. While learning all eleven ways could be potentially helpful, how do you know which one to use when? It’s virtually impossible.

Throughout our classroom discussions the same question continued to arise, “how can a country function with eleven official languages?” and even more discussed “how can South Africa hold a national identity?” in answering these questions I came to the conclusion that South Africa’s identity is diversity; diversity through unity and vice versa. Each language has a specific background rooted deep within their history making it a very hard task to eliminate languages. Their music, poetry, history documents as well as everyday works are written in their mother tongue. According to Neville Alexander’s “language Politics in South Africa” during the spreading of the idea of “Stalin’s theory of a nation” South Africa began to believe the notion that having the same national language would make them a stronger nation. However that idea quickly disintegrated after the realization that the majority of South Africans would lose their native language.

More than 50 years since this theory, South Africa continues to hold on to tribal and historical roots by keeping many of native languages alive. Although these 11 languages have been recognized, one problem remains; communication. While studying abroad I noticed the primary use of one language more than any other, as you can probably guess it was English. English is seen as the “language of opportunity” a group of locals put it, the language understood by the majority. English is the language of business and of success in their eyes, because it is mandatory for most of the available jobs. One of South Africa’s biggest struggles, which can be seen at primary schools like the one we visited, is the education system and which language to educate in. kindergarteners usually are only familiar with one language, the one they use at home. How do you go about teaching them English and maybe even Afrikaans to make them better candidates for the limited amount of job opportunities? More importantly, how do you do this when they all come from different languages in the first place?

I don’t see South Africa’s language situation as a failure by any means, but a success. A success to uphold the history they have and to remain strong regardless of the many divisions in language and race. I look forward to analyzing South Africa in the future and seeing where their languages will take them.

~Riley

How can the South African situation broaden students' notions of language & identity as they become world citizens?

Identity is defined as “the state of having unique identifying characteristics held by no other person or thing”. How can such an easy concept be so difficult to examine when it applies to you? While in South Africa one of the major themes of our class discussions was identity and what it means in different contexts.

Looking back, I can definitely use my experience from South Africa to broaden my own idea, not only about my personal identity, but the identity of people and ideas around me. One of the biggest lessons I learned in the classroom and saw in the real world while in South Africa was the idea that identity is constructed and ever changing. The easiest way for me to explain this was to point out one individual, for example the girl I met at the University of Johannesburg, Nellie. Upon first meeting Nellie it was obvious she was African, which was the first level I constructed. The more I talked to Nellie, the more  I could get more specific in levels, she explain to me that she was born in Zambia, which immediately had me on a new level, nationality. Her first language was Zulu, which formed another category in my mind, one of the 11 languages of South Africa. Our conversation continued as I could get closer and closer to finding one identity, one set of unique characteristics that no one else in the room held.

One thing seemed certain of all the South Africans we met; compared to us they seemed to have such a clear understanding of their personal identity. The idiolect of one individual seemed so distinct from another person. They identified themselves as Zulu, as Xhosa as any ethnicity which, because of their use of language, they had close ties with. They identify with their families, which seem so much closer than American families. They identify with their hometown, with their job, with anything. This got me wondering about what I identify with? I identify with a white female, and with an American. After these few basic identities Nellie and I could agree that in order to find our identities we would be losing more people we could identify with by moving just one more level.

When we started we could identify with each other because we were both females, because we were both currently sitting in the same room. After switching to nationality however, we no longer fell into the same category.  I think this is an important concept to grasp as I enter the world because it reminds me that I’m an individual and that although I may side with one political group for one issue I may identify with another for something else. It’s important to know that although I may be able to identify with one of my best friends for many levels, I am still my own person. In addition it is important to know that you can identify with all sorts of people, all over the world. For example the war on Iraq; although I may be able to identify as a supporter, I can also identify as being sympathetic toward families that lose members due to the war. Understanding identity means I have a unique set of characteristics that can be constantly changing and that there are millions of categories I could fall into one day, but not the next, because identity is constructed, as well as changing.

~Riley

References

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/identity

How do language and identity manifest in a South African context?

             On our first day of class at the University of South Africa (UNISA), our professor prepared a Powerpoint presentation to accompany her lecture on language, identity, and community in South African society. As we took turns discussing what identity meant to us each individually, a single phrase stood out on the projection screen: "Speak so that I may see you." While I did not fully grasp what this phrase illustrated so early in the trip, the more I was exposed to South Africa and its people, the more I realized the significant role language plays not only in how we communicate with others, but in how we identify ourselves and our place in the global community.
            When talking about identity, there are three main categories that must be discussed: national, group, and personal identity. Language is an essential tool in the formation of all of these, especially in the context of South Africa. Since its transition into a constitutional democracy in 1994, South Africans have been working towards the creation of a "rainbow nation," where national identity serves not only to celebrate the cultural diversity of South African people but also to unify them. The government's handling of language politics is a perfect example of this attitude. South Africa today boasts 11 official languages. Pre-1994 there were only two: English and Afrikaans. The addition of the 9 Bantu languages was a major marker of the beginnings of post-apartheid South Africa: a country where the cultures of Black and coloured citizens are valued equally against those of their White counterparts.
            This system, however, is not without its critics. Neville Alexander makes the point that as important as it is for a person to retain the language of his or her respective culture, in order to be successful in a competitive workforce South Africans must speak English first and foremost. Despite the newly official status of many traditional African languages, when it comes to jobs or positions of middle-income or higher, English remains the lingua franca. Because of this, native speakers of Bantu languages are constantly at a disadvantage. "At levels of empowering proficiency, only middle-class people in South Africa can be said to speak English. Yet, there was no thought [by the government] of systematically encouraging and helping people to learn one another's languages on a significant scale" (Neville Alexander, "Language Politics in South Africa"). While Alexander is strongly critical of the politics behind this system, he admits that the most practical solution would be to recognize English as the unifying language of South Africa. Employing this tactic would hopefully do away with language barriers, granting South Africans more equal opportunities for advancement.
            While unilingualization is often poorly associated with colonialism (especially when the unifying language is English), diversity in language is difficult to maintain in an increasingly globalized world. This is not an issue unique to South Africa, but one currently faced everywhere. Because a person's native language is so intrinsically linked to his or her culture (and therefore identity), it is impossible to value one language over another in an anthropological context. Language defines us the same way we are defined by race, gender, class or religion. However, one must not get so caught up in the politics of language that they fail to communicate. To the same extent that one is an American, an Afrikaner, an English or isiXhosa speaker, we are all citizens of the global community. We must constantly be searching for more powerful ways to communicate who we are and what we believe in, in whatever language is most effective. My experiences in South Africa have taught me that a person's identity is not simply defined by how others see them, or even how they see themselves. Identity is how we communicate ourselves to the world.

~Ryan Lakin

How can the South African situation broaden students' notions of language and identity as they become "world citizens"?

            In the context of South African society, one cannot properly discuss identity without talking about language. With 11 official languages, language diversity is celebrated in all aspects of South African culture. Even the South African national anthem is sung in all five of the most widely used South African languages: Xhosa, Zulu, Sesotho, Afrikaans, and English. While much emphasis is put on the importance of retaining the native language of one's culture, what struck me most during my time in South Africa was the widespread multilingualism, especially among my generation. Almost every student I came across spoke not one, but multiple languages other than their native tongue. By studying the treatment of language in South Africa, I believe American students could learn a great deal about the importance of language in relation to becoming more active citizens of the world.
            During the trip, our professors were constantly encouraging us to spend more time watching television. While this seemed like an unusual request at the time, some of the most prominent examples of South African's attitude towards language and culture can be found in their television programs. This is precisely the point Ian Barnard sets out to make in one of our assigned articles. The modern South African soap opera or sitcom features characters from a diverse range of cultural backgrounds, with actors often speaking their lines in multiple languages. Barnard praises this model of entertainment, which "mirrors official policy in South Africa in eschewing identitarian essentialisms by favouring multilingual hybridity and democratic commitment over linguistic purity and ethnic exclusivity" (Ian Barnard, "Multiculturalism in South African Soaps and Sitcoms"). By featuring multiple languages, these television programs not only inspire pride in minority language speakers, but present a  picture of South Africa in which a multicultural, multilingual national identity is shared by all. In an interview, the cast and crew of Isidingo (one of South Africa's most popular soap operas) discuss how the program uses multilingualism as a tool to create a more authentic, uniquely local voice. Such shows stand in stark contrast to those featured in America, where the question of lingual diversity is rarely a topic, let alone a concern.
             Most of my knowledge of language politics in South Africa comes from the mouths of people themselves. Much of our trip was spent on university campuses, granting us many opportunities to interact with our South African peers both in and out of the classroom. At the University of South Africa (UNISA), the first campus we visited, we were fortunate enough to have a few students come in and assist us in our Xhosa language classes. I was impressed (though admittedly somewhat embarrassed) that many of them were proficient in five or six languages while I was only fluent in English. They talked about how they often used different languages when at home, at school, at work, church or when they are out with friends. The fact that so many different languages are used for different aspects of South African society suggests a diverse, richly nuanced national language identity not often displayed in American culture.
             In order to truly become a "world citizen," one possess the desire and ability understand foreign cultures. Because language and culture are so closely intertwined, those who are multilingual are more likely to understand what it means to live in a global community. By studying language politics in South Africa, hopefully students would learn to use language as a tool to break down cultural barriers and create a more unified world.

~Ryan Lakin

Why are eleven languages recognized as “official” languages?

It includes words in five different languages: Xhosa, Zulu, Sotho, Afrikaans, and English.

Nkosi sikelel' iAfrika
Maluphakanyisw' uphondo lwayo,
Yizwa imithandazo yethu,
Nkosi sikelela, thina lusapho lwayo.

Morena boloka setjhaba sa heso,
O fedise dintwa le matshwenyeho,
O se boloke, O se boloke setjhaba sa heso,
Setjhaba sa, South Afrika — South Afrika.

Uit die blou van onse hemel,
Uit die diepte van ons see,
Oor ons ewige gebergtes,
Waar die kranse antwoord gee,

Sounds the call to come together,
And united we shall stand,
Let us live and strive for freedom
In South Africa our land.

It also includes part of the former national anthem, a recognition of the pride and nationalism of the Afrikaners.

National anthem of South Africa (n.d.). In Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 15, 2011, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_anthem_of_South_Africa

              In South Africa there are eleven official languages: "Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, sisSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, and isiZulu" (Phaswana). English is the de facto official language. It is the language the government operates in the most (Phaswana), the one used to write most newspapers and narrate most television and it is also the language the majority of the population speaks, especially in urban areas. However, ten other languages are not only recognized but nine of those are mandated by the constitution to be elevated and promoted by the government. This language policy is motivated by a concern for the preservation of heritage and culture and also by a concern for equality.

               Many South Africans identify strongly with their heritage and therefore the language that goes along with that heritage. A South African is not just a South African but also a Zulu, Afrikaner, Xhosa, and so on. History has played a large role in shaping this identification with one’s ethnic heritage. Prior to the apartheid government, the conflicts between the English and the Afrikaans - peoples of Dutch decent who were the first Europeans to settle in South Africa in large numbers - led to the solidifying and unifying of the Afrikaner culture and identity. The Afrikaners were threatened by the English presence, especially once the English took over the government and implemented policy, such as dictating that the English language be used, to assimilate the people living in South Africa, including the Afrikaners, into the English culture as was their practice when colonizing an area. Once the Afrikaners regained control of the government, they set up an apartheid state. Apartheid meaning separate, their government was based on the concept that different groups should be kept separate so as to develop on their own and in their own way. Of course this seemingly well-intended philosophy was used to maintain a sort of divided and conquered population of nonwhites that could be more easily exploited as a controlled and abused labor source. Under apartheid, the identification of separate groups was maintained and the mixing together that usually occurs when different groups live together for long periods of time was impeded. Not only were white people separated from nonwhites but nonwhites were separated into African, Colored, and Asian and, within the African group, existing ethnic groups were encouraged not mix with each other. For example, the government set up designated areas for people of the same group to live; people were moved from their existing homes and forced to live in these areas. So because of South Africa’s history, its individual groups kept their separate identities more than usual resulting in a population full of many different groups who were looking to preserve their identities, which includes preserving their languages, when the latest constitution was written.

            Another reason for the current language policy in South Africa is a concern for equality. While English is widely spoken many people, especially those who live in rural areas and those with limited access to education, do not have the means to learn English. Also, anyone whose second language is English is at a disadvantage to native English speakers when judged, directly or indirectly, on their writing, reading and speaking skills. For example, if someone applies for a job the interview is most likely going to be conducted in English rather than Sesotho or Setswana so it is automatically going to be more difficult for someone whose first language is not English. While people whose first language is not English are expected to be bilingual, it is not expected that native English speakers learn any other language. This creates an extra criterion and burden on people whose first language is not English, i.e. people with a heritage other than English. This burden is magnified by the fact that because of the lingering effects of apartheid, namely the Bantu Education System in which separate and unequal education systems were established for Whites, Coloreds, and Blacks, the system for blacks being the most inferior system, many people of African descent do not have access to competent education systems adding a further disadvantage to their necessity of bilingualism. Also, many of the schools are taught in English or Afrikaans and the textbooks and other class materials are in these languages (another legacy of apartheid). So, children who do not speak these languages are severely disadvantaged. The interest in promoting and recognizing the nine African languages is to work towards equality for people of African descent who are already overwhelmingly disadvantaged because of the apartheid government’s creation of a system in which white economic advancement was supported and black economic advancement made impossible so wealth was passed onto the children of Afrikaans and English parents but not to children of nonwhite parents, especially black parents who were at the bottom of the rigid social ladder.

              Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, sisSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, and isiZulu are all recognized as official languages of South Africa in an attempt to recognize and correct the legacies of the oppression of the apartheid government, especially towards South Africans of native African descent, but also in an attempt to recognize and preserve the strong group identities that make up South Africa.

Barnard, I. (2006). The language of multiculturalism in South African soaps and sitcoms. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 1(1), 39-60.

Bekker, S. B., Dodds, M., & Khosa, M. M. (Eds.). (2001). Shifting African Identities (Vol. II, pp. 141-152). Pretoria, South Africa: Human Sciences Research Council.

Berger, I. (2009). South Africa in world history. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bond, P. (2006). Reconciliation and economic reaction: Flaw's in South Africa's elite transition. Journal of International Affairs, 60(1), 141-156.

Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2007). One language, multi-layered identities: English in a society in transition, South Africa. World Englishes, 26(3), 263-275.

Marx, A. W. (1997, November 3). Apartheid's end: South Africa's transition from raccial domination. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 474-496.

Phaswana, N. Contradiction or affirmation? The South African language policy and the South African national government.

~Caitlin

How can the South African situation broaden student’ notions of language and identity as they become “world citizens”?

            South Africa is a nation that can teach students a lot about language and its connection to identity in a way that helps them become better world citizens because it parallels the global community in many ways. Just like the world has many different languages, South Africa is a place that is a concentration of many different languages that are actively used. On top of the eleven official languages there are additional African languages, languages of immigrants, and hybrid languages such as Tsotsitaal. In addition, both the global community and South Africa have one dominate language, English, that is used as a common communicator, just like in the increasingly westernized world. With this situation language, in a way, embodies many of the struggles that come about as a result of globalization. For example, the desire to keep ones cultural identity alive in part through the use of one’s native language yet the knowledge that English will reach a larger audience since more people in South Africa and in the world speak it. This is also true with other aspects of culture such as dress; if someone were to go to a job interview in traditional dress, they would be less likely than someone who wore a suit to get most jobs.     
          Many people in South Africa speak multiple languages which adds to the complexity of language as an identity just like language as an identity becomes increasingly complex with the cross cultural communication that is facilitated by modern technology. Also, language as an identity in South Africa is fluid and changing, just like it is in the rapidly changing global community. English was used as a unifying language during the struggle against the apartheid government by blacks in South Africa. They used it as a language to communicate amongst themselves and as a language to communicate with the rest of the world. Adding to the complexity of language, many blacks prefer to use English, instead of their native African language, because it is more useful and also because the different African languages were used as a tool to divide the black population during apartheid.
           South Africa can be seen as almost a microcosm of the world as far as language goes. Therefore, it provides a great reference to international cooperation because one can see how different policies meant to address a multicultural and multilingual population work in practice since there is one government presiding over a single, diverse population. Also, by studying how different groups in South Africa, such as advertising or advocacy groups, address their audience and what audiences they choose (do they try to target all South Africans or do they focus on just a particular group?) and why they make the choices they make, students can learn a lot about presenting material to a diverse population. As the global community grows and there is increasing collaboration between different cultural groups, one must consider a diverse constituency when addressing his/her audience more and more. Studying South Africa can help students do this.


Barnard, I. (2006). The language of multiculturalism in South African soaps and sitcoms. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 1(1), 39-60.


Bekker, S. B., Dodds, M., & Khosa, M. M. (Eds.). (2001). Shifting African Identities (Vol. II, pp. 141-152). Pretoria, South Africa: Human Sciences Research Council.


Berger, I. (2009). South Africa in world history. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.


Bond, P. (2006). Reconciliation and economic reaction: Flaw's in South Africa's elite transition. Journal of International Affairs, 60(1), 141-156.


Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2007). One language, multi-layered identities: English in a society in transition, South Africa. World Englishes, 26(3), 263-275.


Marx, A. W. (1997, November 3). Apartheid's end: South Africa's transition from raccial domination. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 20, 474-496.


Phaswana, N. Contradiction or affirmation? The South African language policy and the South African national government. .

~Caitlin

World Citizens

In this day and age, with everyone around the world just a click away being a "world citizen" is vital. Many jobs are becoming international and understanding cultures around the world is important. Diversity and multiculturalism has been an american staple far before my generation. When I identify myself as an American, I know there are thousands of others nothing like me who also share that identity. But are we really that diverse? After my recent trip to South Africa I have started to question that. Though we all may look different, we share the same language, music, food, and style. It seems that in America our diversity is only skin deep. On the other hand, South Africa is completely different. There is the obvious black and white differences, but within those races there are so many different types of people. Nkonko M. Kamwangamalu even points out that english, the most widely used language, has many layers that South Africans identify themselves with. There is a world of cultures in one tiny country. Its a strange situation that I am not used to, but filled with opportunity. With 11 different languages, cultures, and identities, accepting and understanding the rest of the worlds' differences would become almost second nature. To quote a new friend from Johannesburg (see photo), "Everyone is different in South Africa, if you want to experience a new culture all you have to do is walk down the street." That is such an easy way to begin to understand the different cultures in world and to really become a world citizen. Well, a lot easier than a 16.5 hour plane ride.

~Kiara

Us and Them

I never before wondered how people identify themselves.  But during my orientation for my seminar abroad in South Africa we watched a movie called In my Country that sparked my curiosity. (see video below for more on the movie)  The main character, Anna, was from a wealthy Afrikaan family.  Interestingly, she did not identify herself as other Afrikaans did in that period.  She saw herself and the other South Africans as equals.  While in the opening  scene her own brother even referred to black Africans as "them".  When our group finally arrived in South Africa I was excited to see if that "us/them" mentality still existed. But I was nervous because that could be a very sensitive topic for some. To my surprise and joy people were more than happy to talk to me. 

There were two prominent incidents for me. The first was the first night we went out in Pretoria.  Our group was talking to another group of Afrikaan students and they were asking what we were studying in South Africa.  I told her, Xhosa and clicked on the X (the proper way pronounce the language) and she said, "We're white, you don't click when you say it."  I asked why it mattered to her and she said it was because she does not want a Xhosa person to feel like she is imitating or mocking them.  I still have mixed feelings about that answer.  Is that respectable?  Or just cowardly?  Either way she still identifies a person who speaks Xhosa as "them".  Even though they are from the same place.    

The other was in Cape Town's Green Market.  The Green Market is similar to a flee market, but better.  All of the market's vendors were eager to speak to us also.  Even though I'm pretty sure it was to try and get us to buy something.  As I was examining a scarf a Zulu vendor took note of my new rugby jersey.  He said sporting events were the only time he felt the country was truly unified. I asked why and he responded with, "we're too busy hating the other team, we can't hate each other."  It seems like progress, even feeling united for a few hours.  But there's still that underlying us/them mentality.  

Perhaps that is how South Africa will always be.  With 11 different languages and cultures, maybe that's what the rainbow nation is about.   Having an us but, accepting them. 

~Kiara

The Global Significance of South Africa's National Languages

            It is important for students to look at the South African perception of language as they work towards becoming "world citizens", because South Africa as a nation ties language to politics, culture, and most importantly, identity, in a way that no other country does. Language has been a key factor throughout South African history for all groups involved, from the cultural significance of African languages, to the development of Afrikaans, to the dominance of English and Afrikaans in major cities. It is important that we look at this from a historical perspective as well as a modern-day point of view, so that we understand how a country comes to have eleven official languages and the effect that has on its citizens, whether positive or negative.
            As a student in a country with no official language, attending schools where all of the students understand the same language, studying a country with eleven languages and a very broad multilingual population has broadened my understanding of the importance of language in every aspect. Although there are obviously multilingual families and students in every country, South Africa is a unique case because everyone in cities is expected, almost required to be at least bilingual. The difference in the way South Africa treats language is clear in day to day interactions such as job interviews in both English and Afrikaans, but I think that it is more important in the way it affects South Africa’s political structure. The question of unilingualization has been posed many times, but there are strong arguments for both sides. Some, such as Nkoko Kamwangamalu, suggest that having one language (perhaps English) would establish a sort of “we-code” for the entire country and help to unify the country at an essential time. Others argue that the eleven languages are part of individuals’ identities and that it would be wrong to take that away. This argument may not have a right or wrong side, is beneficial for students to study in order to be able to further examine the impact language has on their own identities, and beneficial for countries to observe as they deal with any of their own conflicts with multiple languages, even on smaller scales.
            In conclusion, the South African situation with language is crucial to examine on both personal and national levels, at the very least. In asking the question of unilingualization, we also ask whether it is more important to unify the country or preserve the traditional and cultural sides of individual identities. If language continues to be a barrier and a source of conflict, it is possible that South Africa will have to reconsider its stance on having so many official languages, but it is doubtful that the country could make such a change to its constitution without political unrest. Since South Africa is in such a state of transition, it is essential that we observe as students the way they handle the issue of language now as well as in the future.

The start of our very first isiXhosa lesson at UNISA!

~Allie Bunch

Why South Africa Needs 11 Languages

            Whether South Africa’s eleven official languages are beneficial to preserving the traditions and cultures of the country’s various ethnic groups or detrimental to the government’s efforts to unify the country is a murky, complex issue to which then answer may be both. These languages, however, are written into the nation’s constitution for historical and modern political reasons. These languages were spoken by tribes who were there before the arrival of Europeans in the 1600’s, and still account for large parts of familial and individual identities. Furthermore, in keeping with the theme of freedom throughout South Africa’s constitution, it is not unreasonable for those who speak African languages to maintain their right to speak whichever language they are most comfortable or familiar with.
            Historically, South Africans have continued to speak African languages, even when English and Afrikaans (“white languages”) were used as tools of oppression. Before Apartheid, as early as the beginning of slavery in South Africa, the Africans were allowed to continue to speak their native languages. During Apartheid, black and colored citizens were not only segregated by race; they were also divided according to language. This was a method Europeans employed in order to gain power over a vast African majority, but it is important to note that they were still allowed to continue learning and teaching their own languages in schools, as well as speaking them around the areas they lived and were permitted to travel. After Apartheid, freedom of language was written into the constitution- each citizen even has the right to be tried in his or her mother tongue. South Africa has always had these eleven languages, and they have become a part of the national identity.
            There are those that argue in favor of unilingualization, but there are many conflicts this could cause. Forcing everyone to learn and speak one language could feel oppressive to those who speak another language at home, particularly in rural areas where English and Afrikaans (the two dominant languages in cities and therefore the most obvious candidates for a single official language) are not necessary. It would be going against the South African constitution, particularly the parts of the constitution where freedom is promised; something the South African people take a great amount of pride in. Furthermore, it would contradict the idea or the goal of a “Rainbow Nation”. The Rainbow Nation is a place South Africa aspires to be, where unity is found in diversity of not only skin color, but also social and economic class, politics, and language.
            South Africa has eleven languages today because they always have, to the point where it has become a defining factor in their national identity. Having a single official language has some potential to establish a we-code and unify the country to a small extent, but South Africa takes pride in freedom, so any group that disagreed with the single-language policy would have both history and the new constitution on their side. To unilingualize would cause political unrest, conflict with South Africa’s own identity, and set the country back in terms of the goals it set for itself in 1994, a crucial turning point in identity and freedom, where language was a significant factor.

~Allie Bunch

How Does Language and Identity Manifest in a South African Context?

            The main language one speaks in South Africa is a major part of one’s identity. One’s language is often associated with one’s tribal or ethnic identity, although, for those with more than one tribal identity, their main language can indicate whether one identifies more with a certain tribe.

            English is one of eleven official languages in South Africa, but it seems to be the most widely spoken. Some parents push their children to speak English as their first language, so that they will be able to understand material taught in school better, since all classes in public schools are conducted in English, as well as better prepared to interact globally (264, Kamwangamalu). According to some students, even though there are supposed to be eleven official languages, there are really only two official languages, English and Afrikaans, and one must know one of these languages to be able to get a job. The prevalence of these two main languages can be seen in billboard advertisements and magazines; the majority of them are printed in either English or Afrikaans. It can also be seen in legislative acts and bills, which can only be written in English or Afrikaans (Phaswana).


            Language makes up a large part of the identity of many South Africans. According to Neville Alexander, “political formations objectively considered language communities to be valid sub-national identities” (143, Alexander). Some ethnic groups, such as most Indians who have lived in South Africa for several generations, speak English as their main language, instead of Hindi or another language. This was interesting to me, because although I am half Indian, I do not speak Hindi, and I know others who have parents that immigrated to the U.S. that do not speak their parent's native language. In South Africa, however, language and identity are often closely intertwined. For example, those who consider themselves Zulu often speak isiZulu as their main language.


            South Africans sometimes have to speak to their friends in English, because they all speak different languages, such as Zulu and Xhosa. Although most people are fluent in English, many seem to prefer speaking to their friends in languages other than English. Many white South Africans speak Afrikaans, and even though English is taught in schools, Afrikaners can send their children to private schools, where Afrikaans is used in the classroom. As a result, some are not fluent in English at all, which puts a language barrier between them and those who do not speak Afrikaans. Non-whites who speak Afrikaans are often stereotyped as “colored,” whether or not they identify themselves as that. In the film In My Country, the character Anna Malan sometimes resents her identity as being Afrikaans, because she believes others label her automatically as a racist who was willing to support the apartheid regime.


            Because English is used in schools, children and adults are encouraged to use it when in an academic or professional setting, which places higher importance on English over other languages. For many, English is not the language spoken at home, so children are expected to change their language identity depending on the situation they’re in. Students, such as myself, for example, address their teachers differently than their classmates. It is a much more significant style shift when people change the language they speak based on their situation. In a way, the prevalence of English in schools works to change the language identity of students.


           South Africa is a country that is modernizing with a "productive and industrialized economy," yet few wish to completely embrace "western" culture, and many South Africans appreciate their cultural and tribal identity. Young people still learn tribal dances and follow some of the customs of their ancestors.

~Forest Gupta

How Can the South African Situation Broaden My Notions of Language and Identity?

            I have never thought of language as a major way to identify myself before. That’s probably because in the U.S. most people speak English and only English. Until I started high school, I had never attempted to learn another language, so it was a bit of a shock to learn that in South Africa, language was a huge part of identity.. Of course, it is a huge part of identity everywhere, but I was unaware of much of that connection.
            People naturally use language to identify themselves and others, even if they are unaware of it. It is often easy to tell where someone is from by their accent, or at least to know if they are from the same area. Different dialects of languages are also spoken in South Africa. The way isiXhosa is spoken in urban areas can greatly differ from the way it is spoken in rural areas, and different areas develop their own slang words. The same is noticeable in the U.S., where it is usually easy to tell where someone is from by the kind of English they speak.
            Language is also used to construct one’s identity. In the film Tsotsi, Tsotsitaal is used by the characters to identify themselves as criminals and gang members. Tsotsitaal is a mixture of languages that can be used to exclude those who do not speak it. Similarly, in the U.S. the use of slang can be used to seem “cool,” while at the same time it can be used to keep others from knowing what is discussed if they are not familiar with the slang words being used. Different slang words come with each generation, perhaps in attempts to exclude other generations. People sometimes try to blend in with a social group by changing the way they speak, such as converging by adopting a different accent, which changes the identity they are projecting.

           When I think of ways a government can oppress a population or a minority rule over a majority, I think of restrictive laws and economic control, not language. Language can also be used as a political and social weapon, though. An example of this is theBantu Education Act, where the apartheid government attempted to change the language used in public schools from English to Afrikaans, which sparked protest. 

Afrikaans was seen as the language of South Africa’s oppressors, while English was seen as more neutral, because the English speaking white population was not politically in control, the Afrikaans speaking white population was. During apartheid, liberation movements “used English as the medium through which they kept the international community” aware of their fight against apartheid (266, Kamwangamalu). English has become a pragmatic we-code, according to Kamwangamalu, because it was seen as a neutral language that allowed black South Africans to communicate with those of different ethnic groups, as well as the rest of the world.
            The importance of language as a marker of identity is font-size: 16px;evident in South African culture. Language diversity may continue to present problems with unity, but South Africa embraces its identity as a “rainbow nation.”

~Forest Gupta

Identity in a South African Perspective

      Stereotypically, Africa is thought to be a continent comprised of a population who are vastly behind modern society. Instead of embracing and studying Africa’s culture, those of us in 1st world countries let our prejudices become our reality. While there were many subtle biases and preconceived notions I had coming into the trip, the one that was the most profusely shattered was how one dimensional I believed South African language was. Upon first reading Nevile Alexander’s article,“Language Politics in South Africa”, I began to realize the complexity of South Africa’s languages. Never before had I realized that language not only is a tool for communication, but is also one of the strongest forms of identity. During my time in South Africa, a fellow student named Edward made the complexity of South African language clear to me while telling me about his childhood. 

      What first struck me while talking with Edward was how reserved he was describing the different language groups. When I first asked him how difficult it was for the different languages to interact with each other, I expected a simple answer. Instead, I got incredible insight into the culture and identity of the South African people. Unlike almost everywhere else where mainly race, religion, or class identifies its people, language is the largest identifier for South African people. Edward recollected that while growing up, he was bombarded with Zulu language, traditions and customs because of his family identification. Instead of just being a black or white issue, identity in the South African context is based on one’s heritage and language. For example, when introducing himself to others, Edward said, "Hello my name is Edward and I’m Zulu”. Right from this first encounter it is plain to see how greatly language is rooted within the South African people. Edward showed me that while the country is trying to build itself into a Rainbow Nation, its people are clinging tightly to their historical roots. They take so much pride in what language group they come from, that they center their entire lives on this single aspect of themselves. Identity is a highly complex concept that takes on many forms depending on the individual situation. While it can’t be said that a South African’s sole identification is their language, Edward’s stories helped me realize it is the most profound.

~Maleah

Building World Citizenship Using South African Principles

            In order to become a productive world citizen, one must be open- minded and observant to their surroundings. This does not merely mean observing the people and landscape from afar, but rather means getting to intimately know the surrounding people’s culture through close conduct. Unbeknownst to many, understanding the roots and meanings of a person’s language provides some of the most meaningful insight into their culture and identity. According to Kamwangamalu in his article “One language, multi-layered identities: English in a society in transition, South Africa”, “Language is intimately linked to an individual’s or group’s social identity”.  He argues that language both acts as an identifier for a group, as well as the individual by giving them a way to identify themselves to the rest of the world and connect themselves within their group.  By understanding this concept in the South African situation, one can understand how to become a fully functioning member of the global community.

            In South Africa, language is what identifies the individual. While walking down the same street, one can hear six different conversations each in its own language. What is so unique about South Africa is that each of its eleven official languages not only is used as a communication tool, but as a strong identifier as well. Each language is rooted with its own traditions and standards by which its speakers live their lives. Even when a South African learns more languages, they are always rooted back to the language of their ancestors. This diverse language climate is perfect for emerging world citizens to learn the basics of the connections between culture and language. Wherever a person travels, they will encounter different languages, dialects, and accents than what they’re accustomed to. Instead of becoming overwhelmed by the differences, a world citizen must learn to use these differences to better understand the cultural roots of the people and places they encounter. Due to the different languages, it is much more obvious in South Africa which group a person identifies with. However, in other parts of the world a slight accent change or a change in the word choice may determine how a person identifies themselves. This is why the South African situation is the ideal place to introduce this concept to emerging world citizens. In order to become a successful world citizen, one must acknowledge and embrace the strong bond between language and identity. This alone can provide immense insight into vastly different cultures that would not be accessible if the language differences were ignored.

~Maleah